Samantha's Notes: February 2011

2/15/11

How did the Industrial Revolution begin in England?

v Origins

¨ Agricultural revolution in the 18^th century?

¨ 18^th century increase in food production

Ø More land

Ø New crops

New crops from the trade in the Americas

Planted turnips and alfalfa to regenerate the soil and people could eat it too, and they used as fodder for the animals, whose manure also helped the fields

Ø Tull

Seed drill

¶ Planted seeds in neat rows as opposed to randomly

Ø Healthier livestock

Ø Little ice age ended à more moderate summers

¨ Enclosure movement

Ø Common land was fenced off and taken by the richest noble in the area à pushed out smaller landholders à England became a land of large estates which benefited the wealthy, and hurt the small farmers who became landless peasants (who later became wage laborers in cities or tenant farmers renting from the big guys)

¨ New Methods in Finance

Ø There was a money shortage- lack of gold and silver generated

Ø 1694 Bank of England was established

Loans

Issued paper money backed by the credit of the government (unlike France who attempted to do the same but it did not work out)

Ø Public debt

The king’s finances/debt and the government’s finances/debt were no longer the same

More stable financial system

Created more financial opportunities for the government

Ø Britain Public Credit- “The Permanent Miracle”

Money became more available

Government’s money was separate from the king

English trusted the government and finances

Ø Nevertheless, in this time period, the Dutch Republic was still the leader in European financial life (17^th century)

Then in the 18^th century, the Dutch capitalists invested the money they made in foreign industry (England)

In the 19^th century London became the leader

2/16/11

¨ Textiles

Ø Most important manufactured item

Ø Before the Industrial Revolution, textiles were made by the domestic system/putting out system/cottage industry

Capitalist bought the raw materials (wool) and went to different peasants and gave different peasants different jobs in textile making (one peasant spins the wool, then a different peasants weaves the cloth on a loom, and then its gets dyed, etc). The capitalist makes most of the money, and pays the peasants very little for their individual job

Ø 2^nd half of the 18^th century

High demand for cheap cotton clothes

Technological change

¶ John Kay invented the flying shuttle, which sped the process of weaving. The weavers needed more thread to weave, and the spinners couldn’t provide enough à

¶ Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny which sped the spinning process

¶ Arkwright invented the water frame which sped the spinning process even more

¶ Crompton invented the spinning mule which increased yarn production

¶ Cartwright invented a mechanized power loom which sped weaving

¶ There were objections from hand workers, but they were not listened to because it was cheaper to use machines. Many peasants lost their jobs

Results

¶ Weaving and spinning did not occur in people’s homes

¶ Brought workers to the machines à factories set up by streams for power à growth of factory towns

See Heilbron article on England the First to Industrialize in Sherman

¨ Continued growth- more factors favoring England

Ø Small country with good transportation

Ø British government had a hands off attitude, but made sure that private property was protected

Ø Good markets (large amounts of customers in England and abroad)

Ø Good merchant marine

Ø People in England could afford to buy things, and an increasing population

¨ Steam engine

Ø James Watt first developed the steam engine to help the miners because water seeped into the mines, and they needed a pump to pump the water out of the mines

Ø Ran on coal, and eventually helped the textile factories so that they did not need to be built on streams

What were the impacts of the IR?

2/22/11

How did the IR affect women, children and the family during the 19^th century?

v 18^th Century

¨ Slower population growth until 1750, and then the growth rate doubled- irreversible upward movement

Ø Result of a decreasing death rate

More food

More infants/children surviving

Ø Bubonic plague had its last big outbreak in the 1720s and then died out

¨ Patriarchal family- basis of social organization, father in charge

Ø Upper classes put family interest ahead of individual interest (ex- arranged marriages based on family’s best interest)

¨ Child care

Ø Lower classes breast fed (which was healthy), but the upper classes hired wet nurses because they thought breast feeding was undignified

¨ Change in the 2^nd half (after 1750)

Ø People viewed childhood as a phase in development

Ø Upper classes reconsidered primogeniture (giving everything to the oldest son) and breast feeding (mother’s began to want to be responsible for their children)

Ø Toys and games made specifically for children

Ø Peasants were still not always able to afford feeding their children

Infanticide (killed their children when they were babies)

Foundling hospitals (orphanages). They had terrible living conditions for children (50-90% of children in these orphanages died)

Ø Couples

Nuclear family

Late marriages outside the aristocracy (25-27 years old for women and 27-28 for men) which lowers the birth rate

Average 5 children per family (but fewer in aristocratic families who used birth control). People had large families if there was a doubt that their children would die

Ø Work

Work involved the whole family

Married women worked in the home, while unmarried women worked outside the home

v 19^th Century

¨ Women and children worked in mines and textile factories, some legislation on hours in the 1830s and 1840s

¨ Controversy over women’s right to work

Ø Working class organizations wanted to keep the women at home

Believed that women belonged in the home to bear and nurture children and should be kept out of industry

The actual effect, however, was exploitation of women

Ø Piecework at home

Women got paid for the individual jobs that they did

Ø Slopwork in the sweatshops

Women worked on the cheapest stuff for the cheapest pay in the factories

¨ After 1870 (2^nd IR)

Ø Women had fewer jobs in the mines and factories

Ø New “white collar” jobs for women, but they were still low wage jobs. Desirable because they were cleaner

Clerks, typists, secretaries, telephone operators, etc.

Nursing and teaching were the jobs for women that required education

Most of these jobs went to upwardly mobile working class women

Some women were prostitutes. Prostitution was regulated (if a woman had a contagious disease she was locked up in a hospital). Middle class reformers (Josephine Butler) objected to punishing prostitutes with diseases when men with the diseases were not locked up à repeal of the contagious diseases acts in 1886

2/23/11

¨ The Women question = role of women in society

Ø 19^th century women were still legally inferior, economically dependent, and socially defined by their families, with household roles

Ø IR reinforced traditional gender roles (like the scientific revolution)

Men went out of the house to work and women stayed home (that was the ideal, except lower class women worked in the sweatshops)

Ø Unmarried women who could not earn enough became servants

Ø 19^th century increased marriages, and decrease in illegitimacy later on in the century.

Birth rates dropped (family size was limited with abortion, infanticide, foundling hospitals, and birth control).

¶ 1882 first birth control clinic in Amsterdam started by Dr. Aletta Jacob (viewed as a female freedom, but was not accepted by most people). Reformers goal was to solve the poverty problem but actually the middle class used birth control, not the lower class

¨ Middle Class

Ø Family centered

Women

¶ stayed in the home while men worked

¶ Servants were common in middle class homes to give women some leisure

¶ Women/girls were supposed to learn knitting/ sewing, sing, learn how to play piano to create a family environment (girls had to play piano so they could have family sing along)

¶ Women had influence in making everyone happy

¶ Women are inferior and should be accustomed to it

Children

¶ No longer “little adults”

¶ Toys

¨ Dolls, checkers

¶ Parents protected them

¶ Boys go to school (except for lower class boys)

¶ Sports and boy scouts were very important to toughen boys up for the military

¶ Girls did not get the same training as boys. They had “girl guides” to raise girls to be guides as mothers and the next generation

¨ Working Class

Ø Childhood is over by 9 or 10

Poor children are off to work by that time

Ø Women

Piecework and slopwork

Ø Men

Later on (1890-1914) some men started to make more money and be able to support their families, so their wives were able to stay home and be more like middle class women

¨ New mass consumer society

Ø Work increased and prices were falling so some working class families were able to afford certain luxuries- sewing machines, stoves, bicycles, clocks, etc

Ø Copied middle class in lowering size of family

Improvement in health, so people felt more comfortable with smaller families

Ø Kids worked much less- they gained fewer hours and had education requirements

Parents hoped education would make their children’s lives better

Ø Strikes and labor agitation- people wanted to work more reasonable hours à 10 hour work day and not Saturday afternoon work by 1900 for many workers

¨ Women’s Rights

Ø 1830s efforts to change laws on family and marriage were not successful (until later)

Wanted to change:

¶ Husbands controlled wife’s property. 1870s in Britain, 1900 in Germany, and 1907 in France women could own property

¶ Hard to get a divorce- Britain legalized divorce in 1857. In France, women had some rights to divorce in 1884. No luck for women in Italy or Spain (everything had religious influences- Britain’s religion was based on a divorce, France was very secular, but Italy and Spain were very religious)

Ø Jobs

Education- Women became teachers

No medical school for women à women became nurses

¶ Amalie Sieveking started the Female Association for the Care of the Poor and Sick (professional nursing group in Germany)

¶ Florence Nightingale organized a nursing corps for the Crimean War

¶ Nursing became a job for middle class, trained women

Some women were chemists in pharmacy because there was no big physical or mental strain that women can’t handle

Ø Political Rights Movement

Focused on getting the right to vote

¶ Strongest in England and US

¶ Two approaches

¨ Liberal approach- Millicent Fawcett

Ø Moderate- women will be responsible citizens and votes

¨ Radical approach

Ø Emmeline Pankhurst

Smashed department store windows, chained to light posts, egged political officials

Turned people against women voting, because it showed they were irresponsible

Started the Women’s Social and Political Union

Women in the middle and upper classes were followers of the cause

Ø Emily Davidson threw herself in front of the king’s horse as a martyr for the cause

Ø Suffragettes or suffragists (intended as an insult)

¶ Finland and Norway were the only countries that allowed women to vote before WWI

Some women were peace activists

¶ Bertha von Suttner

¨ Started Austrian Peace Society

¨ Wrote Lay Down Your Arms (which won a Nobel prize)

“New Women” who tried to live not the ideal women lifestyle

¶ Maria Montessori

¨ 1896 first woman to be a doctor and get a MD

¨ Lectured on the ‘new’ woman: rational scientific perspective

¨ New teaching methods

Ø Aim was to “set free” kids’ personality

Ø Kids should learn at their own pace

Ø “Natural and spontaneous” activities to learn about child’s own pace

Ø Ungraded classrooms

How did the Liberals respond to the IR?

v What is a 19^th century liberal?

¨ Liberals in the 19^th century were extremely conservative

¨ They opposed government intervention and regulation in (society and economy).

¨ Similar to liberals today, they wanted to promote freedom in every way, over order

v Industrial workers wanted better working conditions and decent wages

¨ Combination Acts 1799 and 1800

Ø Basically outlawed associations of workers (unions) “in restraint of trade”

Ø Passed in reaction to the radical French revolutionaries in the working classes

Ø Skilled workers organized anyway in the “new industries” (cotton spinners, iron workers, coal workers, etc). Very similar to guilds in the past

Purposes of the organizations

¶ Keep their jobs (keep non members out)

¶ Get better benefits for workers (more money, shorter hours, cleaner working conditions)

Illegal strikes

Ø Combination Acts were repealed in 1824 because some members of Parliament said that the acts make workers so upset that they formed unions. So now unions were legal, but limited their activities

¨ 1820s-1830s effort to form national unions

Ø Robert Owen

Factory owner

Utopian socialist

Suggested voluntary associations that would eventually lead to cooperative living

Many trade unionists liked his ideas à 1834 Grand National Consolidated Trades Union

¶ Goal: All the trade unions coming together to form a national strike for an 8 hour day

¶ GNCTU failed- did not get support, because the working class feared that if they worked less they would not make enough money to support the family

Ø à Back to trade unions for individual crafts (Amalgamated Society of Engineers attracted people because of their benefits, including unemployment benefits)

¨ Luddites

Ø Skilled hand craftspeople who tried to attack machines

Ø They failed in stopping industrialization and mechanization

Ø On the other hand, many people had sympathy for them

Government was unsuccessful in arresting them, because their friends and neighbors protected them. They felt bad for them because they were skilled, and they lost their jobs because factories and machines took their jobs

2/24/11

¨ Chartists

Ø 1^st important political movement of working men

Ø Kind of similar to Anabaptists because they had way out crazy ideas for that time

Ø Goal: Political democracy

Universal male suffrage

Secret ballot

¶ Avoid bribery, corruption, and social pressure

End of property requirements for members of Parliament (so non landowners could serve as well)

1 year terms for members of Parliament

Ø Respectfully presented their charters (ideas) to Parliament asking for change, but Parliament said NO!

Ø Movement eventually died out because of the opposition in Parliament

Ø Result of Chartists

No immediate progress, but millions of people were aroused and developed a sense of working class consciousness

v Reformers (non working class)

¨ William Wordsworth

Ø Complained that IR destroyed nature, which was a problem

¨ IR also destroyed people’s lives

Ø Wages went up, but so did “Real wages”- what you could buy with your money. If real wages go up more than wages, your wage isn’t going up

Ø Other reformers and critics

Focused on abuse of kids, increasing numbers of poor

¨ Factory Acts

Ø 1819

Limited children between 9-16 to 12 hours a day in the cotton mills. Kids under 9 shouldn’t be working. Boss must provide some education for children in reading and arithmetic

Problem- only applied to cotton mills (not other factories) and the acts were not enforced

Ø 1833

In all textile factories- children ages 9-13 work only 8 hours a day and receive 2 hours of elementary education, and ages 13-18 work 12 hours a day with no education

Inspectors will be sent to the textile factories to make sure the acts were being enforced

¨ Ten Hours Act 1847

Ø Children 13-18 and all women can only work for 10 hours a day

¨ Coal Mines Act 1842

Ø No women or boys under 10 could work in the coal mines

v Economic Liberals

¨ Oppose all reform- it is not the government’s business to get involved

¨ Adam Smith

Ø The Wealth of Nations 1776

Laissez faire- government should not involve itself in economics. People should be allowed to do what they want

3 principles

¶ Free trade- government does not regulate trade (opposite of mercantilism)

¶ Labor theory of value- true wealth is created by work done to create the merchandise

¶ State should not interfere in economic matters

Ø Lays the foundation for 19^th century economic liberalism

¨ Thomas Malthus

Ø Essay on the Principles of Population

Population grows geometrically (exponentially- 2, 4, 8, 16), but unfortunately food only grows arithmetically (2, 4, 6, 8)

¶ So as population grows, it outstrips the food supply à overpopulation and starvation

Solution: bubonic plague, war, starving children to death, basically let enough people die

This is the law of nature, so therefore there is nothing government or individuals could do about it- they should not try to help or interfere the suffering

Thus, Malthus agrees with no government interference

Ø Dismal economy (definition?)

¨ David Ricardo

Ø Principles of Political Economy

Iron Law of Wages

¶ Cycle- population increases à more workers à wages go down à workers do not earn enough to support family and survive à misery, starvation, fewer workers à wages go up à population increases…etc.

¶ No one should give charity because it will eventually cause more people starving to death (according to the cycle)

¶ Dismal economy as well

v Political Liberals

¨ Similar to economic liberalism (freedom from restraint)

¨ Roots go back to Locke

Ø There should be limits on government so they can’t do whatever they want

Ø People should be allowed to peacefully oppose the government

¨ 19^th century liberals

Ø Supported many freedoms

Limits on government power

¶ Freedom of speech, press, assembly

¶ Religious toleration

¶ Constitution or other documents guaranteeing these rights

¶ If monarchy exists, it should be limited

¶ Elected representative assembly to make laws

¶ Right to peaceful opposition

Ø BUT they were NOT democrats

They did not believe in equal suffrage- only propertied classes could vote or hold office

Ø Ministerial responsibility

Ministers answer to the legislature

Ø Middle class movement- middle class people wanted to get in on power

¨ Important political liberals

Ø Jeremy Bentham 1748-1832

Considered one of the most influential early 19^th century liberals

Utilitarianism

¶ Look to increase your happiness rather than diminish it

¶ Things that increase your happiness are ‘useful’, based on pain and pleasure

¶ Assumption- people want to avoid pain and increase pleasure

¶ If something promotes happiness to the individual or group, then it is useful

¶ Principle of utility = approve or disapprove of any action according to whether it promotes the “happiness” of the individual or groups

Manual of Political Economy

¶ Who should try to increase national wealth or means of subsistence/enjoyment? The individual, not the government. For maximum happiness, each individual has to do his own thing

¶ Materialistic- you get happiness through physical things, like money. Increasing wealth à increasing happiness

Ø In Sherman

Samuel Smiles- Self Help—Middle Class Attitudes

¶ Liberal who reflects the average middle class attitude

¶ Heaven helps those who help themselves

¶ Leaving people free to help themselves and just protecting life liberty and property will make individuals work hard

¶ Encouraging people to work is good

¶ Let people do their own thing, have their own initiative, and helping them will enfeeble them

¶ Government help weakens people

¶ Work hard and prosper, and do not be lazy- both individual and the country will be better off

Trollope

¶ Illustration in Sherman

Another painting in Sherman shows an upper class visiting a sick poor family. The middle class condemned the poor, but the upper class felt that they had to help the poor

Ø John Stuart Mill

His father was well educated, and taught his son (John) all about Plato, Aristotle, Bentham, etc.

John was a genius at a young age

Agreed with Bentham’s ideas

Created a group (The Utilitarian Society) to explore Utilitarianism and Bentham’s ideas

He had a mental breakdown at age 20, but got through it

On Liberty

¶ Society should have total freedom

¶ Cannot use force against someone, even it is for their own good

¶ People need protection from social pressures. People should have the right to have an opinion and disagree with a majority

Concern for women

¶ Collaborated with his wife, Harriet Taylor, and under her influence he wrote On the Subjugation of Women

¨ Argued that there is no justification for the inferiority of women. Women should not be subordinate to men

¨ Tried to get women voting rights

¨ Differences between men and women are due to social practices. With an education, women could achieve just as much as men

2/25/11

How did Political Reformer come about in England in the first half of the nineteenth century?

v 18^th century

¨ Power is shared between king and Parliament

¨ Ministers chosen by the king and answer to the king

¨ Parliament has the power to make laws, levy taxes, etc

¨ Parliament dominated by landowners- peers and gentry

¨ House of Commons was not chosen democratically

Ø Representation depended on population hundreds of years ago. So if a borough shrunk, it still had 2 representatives, and new cities, like Manchester, did not have any representation at all

Ø Pocket borough

One person controls the borough

In one case, a Duke controlled 7 boroughs and picked 14 members of Parliament

Ø Representation can be chosen through bribery

Ø County delegates

Representatives chosen by property owners worth 40 shillings, but really they elected the bigger landowners as representatives

Ø King controlled the aristocrats

¨ Kings George I and II were German, and left a lot of power to the Prime Minster Robert Walpole and to the duke of Newcastle à development of cabinet system

Ø Walpole 1721-1742

Wanted peaceful foreign policy

Increase trade and industry

Ø William Pitt the Elder 1757-1761

Support the idea of empire

¶ Canada and India

Fired by the king

¨ Enlightenment à calls for reform of the patronage and electoral system

Ø John Wilkes

Middle class journalist who was elected to Parliament. He criticized the king’s minister, got kicked out, won another seat, parliament wouldn’t let him take his seat, his supporters were pissed

Calls for change

Supporters

¶ Common people of London who could not vote

¶ They wanted liberty

King made a few minor changes by appointing William Pitt the Younger as PM

¶ Pitt had support of merchants and industrialists, and landowners, so the common people had no representation

v 19^th century

¨ Dominant party in Parliament exercises a lot of the king’s powers

Ø Tories

More conservative

Dominated until 1830

Afraid of reform and radicalism

Ø Whigs

Landowners with some support of industrialists (middle class)

¨ After 1815 economic problems

Ø Falling grain prices due to an increase in production à Corn Laws of 1815

Corn = grain/ wheat

Good for the grain sellers but hard for the people buying bread

Heavy tax on imported grain to promote people buying grain from English landowners

Ø Mass Protest

St. Petersfield in Manchester

Government sent in the cavalry, attacked demonstrators, 11 people were killed (Peterloo Massacre)

Ø Government reaction

Restricted large public meetings

Restricted the distribution of pamphlets to poor people

However, minor reforms were made to avoid making electoral reforms

2/28/11

¨ Reform

Ø 1830 a new time

Ø Whigs came into power

Ready to make concessions (give in) to industrialists to avoid revolution (afraid of the July Revolution that was going on in France at the time)

Ø H Reform Act of 1832

Benefits the upper middle class

Thomas Babington Macaulay

¶ You need reform to prevent revolution

¶ Reform won’t cause revolution, because reform will benefit the middle class, who support the monarchy

Lord John Russell

¶ Supported the reform bill because the people it affected were “good guys”

Purpose of the reform = recognize the changes made by the IR and update representation based on the new population distribution

¶ Steps Roselle Page 324

Contents of the reform

¶ Disenfranchised 56 rotten boroughs- these boroughs no longer had representation in Parliament

¶ Enfranchised 46 new towns and cities that had large populations

¶ Reapportioned other areas

¶ Lowered property requirements for voting to property worth 10 pounds in annual rent

¨ Significantly increased the amount of voters, but most people still did not have the right to vote (only 1 in 30 people could vote)

¶ More representation for Scotland and Ireland

Ø More reforms of 1830s and 1840s

Aristocratic landowners were behind the reforms because they saw the hardships of the industry and wanted to stop industrial abuses. Aristocrats had the tradition of giving charity to the poor.

Industrialists, however, insisted on economic liberalism

¶ Poor Law of 1834

¨ Made by the industrialists

¨ It is not humane

¨ It set up work houses which had worse living conditions than the worst factory, so it would force people to find better jobs

¨ They did this to end laziness

¶ Repealed the Corn Laws

¨ Believed the Corn Laws went against free trade

¨ Manufacturers Richard Cobden and John Bright set up the Anti-Corn Law League to help workers (and industrialists) by lowering bread prices

¨ Also fits with the free trade ideas of economic liberals

¨ Repealed caused by a Tory named Robert Peel who persuaded some of his friends to go along with his reform

Emancipation Act 1833

¶ Gradually freed slaves- they had to work as an apprentice for no pay so they could learn a trade

¶ England didn’t have slaves- this act freed slaves in British colonies

¶ Moral crusade

Reform of Police (occurred in England and elsewhere throughout Europe)

¶ More disciplined orderly society

¶ Police as protectors made them more acceptable

¨ Started in Paris- goal was safety and clean streets

¨ Sir Robert Peel brought these reforms to England

Ø Uniformed, trained police force

Ø “Bobbies”

¨ German policemen were more militarized (Schutzmannschaft)

¶ Other efforts to fight crime

¨ Poor Laws because people believed poverty caused crime

¨ Others believed crime was a result of moral degeneracy, so educating the poor was a way to prevent crime

¨ Religion- religious leaders tried to promote morality

Ø Result of ALL the reforms:

1848 Europe had revolutions led by liberals and nationalists

¶ No revolutions in England where the liberals were satisfied by the Reform Act of ’32 and other reforms that were made

Samantha's Notes

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