1/31/11
Art during the era of the French Revolution
v Rococo
¨ The style that was popular during the 18th century (pre-revolution)
¨ Came after baroque
¨ More provocative
¨ Very rich and lush
¨ Ornate and prettified
¨ Fragonard
Ø Girl on a swing
Painted before the FR
Decorative
Idealized
Ø Girl reading
Painted before the FR, but a different style than before
A little more simpler and classical than rococo- beginning of neoclassical style
Similar in the vasumptuos
More reason, rational, and thought out, unlike rococo which is dreamy and fantasy like.
v Neoclassical
¨ Style during the FR
¨ Similar to Renaissance
¨ Classical theme and influence of the classics
¨ Balance
¨ David
Ø Amarat
Shows a man who was murdered during the FR
More gory, sad, and not happy
Tribute to Marat, who died because he was a radical
Was Napoleon Bonaparte the “child of the Revolution”?
Napoleon intended to raise and ‘clean’ the monarchy through force
v 1794 National Convention and Committee of Public Safety had…
¨ Created a nation in arms that had done several things
Ø Prevented the revolution from being destroyed by foreigners
Ø Saved the revolution from domestic counterrevolutionaries (Robespierre)
¨ Set an example for the use of violence
v Thermidorean Reaction
¨ Death of Robespierre on the 10th of Thermidor
¨ National Convention took back power
Ø Shut down clubs like the Jacobins
Ø Cut down the power of the committee of public safety
Ø Churches were allowed to reopen, and on 2/21/95 freedom of worship was granted
Ø Return to laissez faire economics (discard law of the maximum)
Ø Wrote a new constitution in 1795 (Year III)
v Constitution of 1795- The Directory
¨ 2 chambered National Assembly
Ø Lower house- Council of 500
Initiate legislation
Ø Upper house- Council of Elders (250 men, over 40, married or widowed)
Accept or reject laws proposed by the council of 500
Ø Very indirect election
People who were chosen had to be wealthy, and were chosen by active citizens, who were tax payers (property owners)
Ø 2/3 of the National Assembly had to be former members of the National Convention
¨ Executive Brand = 5 Directors
Ø Nominated by the Council of 500 and elected by the Council of Elders
¨ à Uprising in Paris
Ø The citizens did not favor the Directory
Ø The revolt was put down by general Napoleon Bonaparte
Ø à Directory depended on the army
v Directory Period
¨ Characteristics
Ø Stagnation (nothing good was being made or done), corruption in the government, and anything could be done through bribes
Ø Speculators prosper
Ø Elaborate fashions- rich people flaunted their money
Ø Gambling became popular again
¨ Political enemies of the Directory
Ø Right: reactionaries who want the monarchy to return
Ø Left: Jacobins hoped that the money problems (with the assignats) would lead to power for them
Ø Extreme Left: Gracchus Babeuf and friends who wanted to abolish private property and eliminate private enterprise- everything should be done by the government. “Conspiracy of Equals” was lead by Babeuf as an attempt to impose his socialistic idea, but it was defeated in 1796 and Babeuf was executed.
v Napoleon
¨ Corsican
¨ Son of a lawyer and descended from Florentine nobility
¨ Royal scholarship to military school. He was raised very high very quickly in the military, and France was afraid of his power, so they sent him off to Italy to fight for France there
¨ 1796 commander of the French Army in Italy
Ø Turns the army into a magnificent fighting force
Ø Motivation
They did great in the FR and there’s more to come
The soldiers are the source of pride and glory for France
If they do well, soldiers can ride quickly
Napoleon was very inspirational in the way he treated his soldiers
¨ Personal qualities that made Napoleon powerful
Ø Energy
Ø Charm
Ø Quick to understand
Ø Quick to make decisions
Ø Smart
Ø Good with words
Ø Self confidant
Ø Result: Napoleon was successful in defeating the Austrians in Italy, and dictated peace terms
¨ Napoleon was given another army and told to invade England, but he declined because he noticed it was not going to be successful, and very difficult. So Napoleon said they should conquer Egypt, which was very important to England because England controlled Egypt, which was England’s way of getting goods from the East.
Ø Problem: England controlled the seas. They were able to cut off Napoleon’s supplies à Napoleon lost, so he abandoned his army, took a fast boat back to France (to cover up his loss), and joined a coup d’etat with Abbe Sieyes- 19th Brumaire (1799). They had a relatively bloodless forcible takeover of the government. They formed a new government with a new form of Republic with a new constitution.
2/3/11
¨ New Republic and Constitution
Ø Executive power in the hand of 3 Consuls, “But the decision of the First Consul shall suffice.” Basically, the First Consul could do whatever he wants, and obviously Napoleon was the First Consul.
Ø Indirectly elected bicameral (two houses) legislature, however Napoleon had major influence over it
Ø Napoleon also directly controlled the bureaucracy, army, and foreign affairs
Ø 1802 Napoleon was deemed First Consul for life (but that wasn’t good enough)
Ø 1804 plebiscite (everyone can vote) on a new constitution
People asked Napoleon what’s in the new constitution, and Napoleon said, “Napoleon is in it”
Basically, Napoleon said voting for the new constitution is voting for me. He didn’t tell anyone what was in it
Napoleon became Emperor Napoleon
¶ Napoleon brought the Pope to the precession to crown him, but Napoleon took the crown out of the Pope’s hands and put the crown on himself (basically saying that he made himself emperor)
Ø Napoleon stabilized the government, but made it more autocratic than the old regime
¨ Domestic Policies of Napoleon
Ø Religion
18th century rationalist, but believed that religion benefitted the state because it led to morality (which is good)
Concordat of 1801
¶ Agreement with Pope Pius VII
¶ Reconciled France and the Church- Ended the conflict between the Pope and the French government
¶ Catholicism was recognized as the ‘majority’ (not official) religion of France
¶ State would nominate the bishops, but the Pope was allowed to approve or disapprove (so it became a state church because the state chose the bishops)
¶ Government paid the clergy (even Protestant ministers) which meant that the government controlled them
¶ All Church lands that were confiscated during the Revolution to back the money were not to be returned
¶ Church may hold processions and reopen seminaries (train priests)
2/4/11
Ø Law
Unify and centralize
¶ Enlightenment idea of the whole country being centralized under the same laws, and not different laws for each area of France
¶ This continued the Revolution
Civil Code
¶ Confirmed some Revolutionary gains, like legal equality and protection of property and persons
¶ All citizens are equal before the law (but the law treats some differently- women)
¶ Right to choose your own occupation
¶ Religious toleration
¶ Confirmed the abolition of serfdom and feudalism (keeping the rev)
¶ Strong protections for property (good for the rich)
¶ Not good for workers- outlawed labor unions and strikes
¶ Restrictions
Ø During the revolution, it was made easy to divorce, but under the new law codes Napoleon made it harder for women to get a divorce
Ø Women were legally minors
Ø Women’s property belongs to the husband
Ø Women are subject to their husbands, and so are girls and children
Ø Girls do not get equal inheritance
Ø Education
Uniform system of secular schools.
Promote loyalty and obedience to the state
Ø Centralized Bureaucracy
Kept the 83 departments set up by the FR, but Napoleon appointed prefects that ran the 83 departments
Enforced 1789 law that everyone had to pay taxes with no exemptions à balanced budget
Promotion based on merit. On the other hand, he created a new aristocracy that was not hereditary
Ø Loss of Freedom
Closed newspapers if they said the slightest thing against Napoleon. 60 out of Paris’ 73 newspapers were closed
All manuscripts had to be censored. Mme de Stael was a critic of Napoleon who denounced him and went to Germany where she could criticize Napoleon without being shut down
Secret police and spies in and out of the country
How did Napoleon affect Europe as a whole?
v 1798-1801 Second Coalition
(First Coalition was the one formed during the FR at the Declaration of Pilnitz)
¨ Great Britain, Austria, and Russia
¨ Goals
Ø Regain Austrian lands that Napoleon took in Italy
Ø End French domination of the Swiss and Dutch
Ø Take land for England and Russia
¨ Results
Ø Military victory by France à Treaty of Luneville
Ø France gained land from the HRE on the W. bank of the Rhine, also gained more control in Italy, and regained the Austrian Netherlands
¨ 1802 peace even with England
Ø Napoleon wasn’t happy with peace, because with peace he could not take land from anyone
2/7/11
v Napoleonic Wars
¨ Fighting continued— 7 coalitions against France from 1793-1815. 1689-1815 = “2nd Hundred Years’ War”
Ø 1689 was the fighting during the time of Louis XIV. The time from then through Napoleon is considered by some historians a 2nd hundred years’ war because France and England were constantly fighting.
¨ 1803 France v. England
¨ Third Coalition 1805
Ø England (head), Austria, Russia, Sweden (who was fading)
Ø Napoleon’s army was great with effective tactics
Well trained and experienced soldiers
Veteran generals
Great equipment
Superior number of soldiers to overwhelm the enemies
Unorthodox tactics
¶ Sent the worst soldiers in first to save the best soldiers for later
Ø French victories at Ulm and Austerlitz
Napoleon lured the other side into attacking him, but then Napoleon had his best soldiers hiding and waiting to fight
Ø Result
Napoleon won
Treaty of Pressburg
¶ France gained land in Italy from Austria, and Napoleon formed the Kingdom of Italy with himself as king. Napoleon was trying to create other nations either under direct French rule or allies of France
¶ Confederation of the Rhine
Ø 16 German states controlled by Napoleon
Ø This ended the HRE (The HRE Francis II gave up, and became just Emperor Francis I of Austria)
¨ Fourth Coalition
Ø Great Britain, Austria, and Prussia
Ø Napoleon keeps on winning
Ø Treaty Tilsit
France gained land from Prussia
Grand Duchy of Warsaw
¶ Basically, all the countries were partitioning different parts of Poland to the extent that Poland ceased to exist
¶ This new allied state to France was created out of Prussia’s land in Poland
Kingdom of Westphalia
¶ Napoleon created this new territory, recreated its government, and gave it to a relative to rule
Ø Continental System = economic war
Napoleon closed his ports on the continent of Europe to all British ships
Problem- this hurts the people in the continent as well
British Orders in Council
¶ Britain announced that no French or allied countries’ ships could come into England
Napoleon needed Russia to cooperate with his plan, so he gave Russia Eastern Europe as its own sphere of influence
Prussia, Denmark, and Austria were forced to be allies of Napoleon
¨ Peninsular War 1808-1814
Ø Earlier French occupied Portugal to keep Portugal and Spain from trading with England (continental system)
Ø Napoleon forced the Bourbons to abdicate and put his brother Joseph as king of Spain
Ø Applied some elements of the French Revolution to areas conquered (Imperial Decree in Sherman)
When Napoleon would take over an area he put in some revolutionary ideas- abolished serfdom, proclaimed liberty, equality, fraternity, confiscated Church land, etc.
Ø à Guerilla warfare by Spanish nobles and clergy. They keep attacking French soldiers because pretty pissed about all these things Napoleon was doing
Ø à Portuguese royal family went to Brazil
Ø à England began to trade with Latin American colonies of Spain
Ø à Resistance to France was encouraged in other lands Napoleon had conquered à Nationalism created/strengthened in Portugal, Spain, England, Austria
This is one of the most important long lasting effects of Napoleon. National pride and feelings were originated in France and spread to all the other places Napoleon conquered and had influence
¨ Napoleon continued to win against Austria
Ø By 1810 he ruled most of Europe
Ø Napoleon’s wife, Josephine, was barren and could not have children à Napoleon married the Austrian princess Marie Louise (son of Francis I) after divorcing from Josephine
Ø Austria became an unwilling ally of France
v Art
¨ Art in other countries took up nationalism and propaganda
¨ Propaganda was made pro and against Napoleon
¨ Goya was a famous propaganda artist during this time
¨ There was also a French artist (forgot his name) who painted propaganda pro Napoleon- famous painting of Napoleon riding on a horse which gave pride to the French people
How was Napoleon destroyed?
v No invasion of England because Admiral Lord Nelson had seriously damaged the French fleet at Trafalgar so the Continental System was Napoleon’s alternative (Napoleon no longer had the naval power to enforce the system)
¨ British Orders in Council were more effectively enforced
¨ Result
Ø Cause of the War of 1812 (Americans v. British)
Ø Continental System failed- Europe really needed Britain’s goods (cotton, sugar) à smuggling
Ø Helped stir nationalist revolts (see above Peninsular War)
Ø Russia pulled out (needed English manufactured goods and tea, also wanted to sell England lumber, furs, and grain). Napoleon was angry!
v Invasion of Russia
¨ France was successful at first- they captured Moscow
¨ Problem:
Ø French soldiers lived off the land, which basically means that they stole food and shelter from the people where they were conquering
Russia moved all its people and animals out, and whatever they couldn’t move they burned
France was out of supplies
Ø Winter was coming, and winters in Russia are tough, especially for people not used to the weather and if you do not have proper supplies
¨ à Napoleon tried to retreat
Ø Only 40,000 French soldiers survived out of 600,000
¨ Napoleon hurried back to Paris, as Russian soldiers persisted in attacking the French soldiers on their way home
v Defeat in Russia à other rebellions
¨ Rising tide of nationalism in Spain, Russia, Holland, Belgium, Italy, and the German states (Especially Prussia)
Ø All these countries that copied France now went against France
¨ Battle of Nations October 1813
Ø Prussia, Russia, Austria, with help from England, and Sweden
Ø Everyone got together to invade France
¨ March 13th, 1814- allied armies entered Paris
Ø Napoleon was abdicated in April and was exiled to Elba (he never said “able was I ere I saw Elba.” It’s just a fun palindrome)
2/10/11
v Louis XVIII (Louis XVI’s brother) became the new king
¨ February 1815 Napoleon escaped from Elba. Headlines in Paris read, “The monster has escaped”. Napoleon landed in France with a small force, and the headlines read, “Napoleon is attacking us.” Napoleon gave people the choice to join him or shoot him, but all the soldiers joined him. Finally a huge anti-Napoleon army came and even they joined him. Napoleon retook of Paris, and headlines read, “Welcome, emperor.”
¨ The alliance of other countries against Napoleon reassembled, and defeated Napoleon at Waterloo à Napoleon was exiled to St. Helena, where he eventually died.
v Balance sheet for Napoleon:
¨ Consolidated some results of the FR, particularly equality of all men before the law
¨ Spread revolutionary ideas to other societies and undermined undemocratic systems
¨ Changed the map- however, some changes were eventually undone, but HRE is gone
¨ Stimulated nationalism of France and other nations
¨ Legend of Napoleon and glory of France
¨ France was left divided
Ø Bonapartists, who wanted strong male rule
Ø Monarchists, who wanted a ruler descendant from the old royal family (Bourbons)
Ø Democratic republicans,
How did the Congress of Vienna try to turn back the clock?
v Congress of royalty, nobility, advisors, (and lots of servants) to try to contain the effects of the revolutionary forces and restore as much as possible
¨ Key players
Ø Castlereagh
Representative of England
Goal: maintain English dominance at sea
Ø Talleyrand
Representative of France
Born noble, became a bishop, and lived through every part of the French Revolution and Napoleonic era
He constantly changed his allegiances
Ø Metternich of Austria dominated the meeting
¨ Principles of the Conference
Ø “Legitimacy”- restore old rulers
Bourbons in France and Spain, and the old rulers of the Italian state
Ø Maintain a “balance of power”-
Maintain the independence of all of the great states
No state can become “too strong”
Poland- Prussia and Austria were allowed to keep some of the land they had earlier annexed. Russian Romanov dynasty was named the ruler of an “independent” Poland
France was allowed to remain a great power, but they were also surrounded by stronger states to thwart expansionary ideas
Ø “Compensation”- if you gave up territory in one place, you got land somewhere else
Since Prussia lost some territory in Poland, they got 2/5 of Saxony + Westphalia + the left bank of the Rhine
Austria got Lombardy and Venetia as compensation for the loss of the Austrian Netherlands (which went to the Dutch)
Ø A new league of German states- the Germanic Confederation- replaces Napoleon’s “Confederation of the Rhine”
¨ Hundred Days (Napoleon’s return) and the French people’s enthusiastic for him à punishment after he was defeated
Ø France’s borders go back to 1790
Ø Had to pay and indemnity (money the winner takes from the loser to pay for the expenses of the war)
Ø 5 year army occupation of France to prevent expansionary ideas, rebellions, etc.
¨ Results of the C of V:
Ø On the plus side…
No general European war for 100 years
Ø On the negative side…
Ordinary people and nobility were totally and traditionally ignored in any sense of self determination for European nationalities (wait for President Wilson after WWI)
¨ Conservatism
Ø Philosophy of the C of V
Ø Edmund Burke Reflection on the Revolution in France
Society is based on a “contract” (like Locke and others) but no one generation has a right to destroy the partnership- contract includes past and future generations
Against the violent overthrow of government, but gradual change is ok
2/11/11
Ø Joseph de Maistre
Thinker, writer, and spokesman of conservatism
In order to guarantee order, absolute monarchy is needed
Wanted the restoration of hereditary rulers
Ø Metternich
Usual absolutist arguments…
¶ Every age is immoral and ambitious
¶ Monarchs need to maintain stability in cooperation with the church
Newer ideas
¶ States should work together to follow conservative ideas
Blames the press (newspapers) and secret societies for the troubles of the time and riling people up. Solution- suppress the press and secret societies.
Ø Concert of Europe
Implement the ideas of the Congress of Vienna
Prussia, Russia, Austria, and Great Britain. It’s really a continuation of the Quadruple Alliance to maintain the old order and stop revolutions. Eventually Britain got out because they liked change and wanted other countries to have the same liberties and freedoms that they had
Met at Aix La Chapelle in 1818
¶ Ended occupation in France, and invited them into the concert (now they are the Quintuple alliace)
Suppressed rebellions
¶ Spain
Ø Rebellion against the Bourbon King, Ferdinand VII, by people (army and upper class) who wanted a representative government and wanted him to follow the liberal constitution, which he did not, and because he dissolved the Cortes (government body)
Ø Suppressed by France
¶ Italy
Ø Rebellion against Ferdinand I of Naples and Sicily
Ø Suppressed by Austria
¶ British weren’t happy with all of this because they wanted people to have the king of government they had
Other revolts (which were successful)
¶ Latin America
Ø Spanish control of Latin America had been weakened by Napoleon’s control of Spain
Ø 1810 Argentina independent
Ø By 1825, Simon Bolivar had freed Columbia, Venezuela, Mexico, and Central America
Ø Portugal recognized the independence of Brazil
Ø Jose de San Martin freed Chile and Peru
Ø These revolts were not suppressed because Britain controlled the seas, and they did not want intervention because they benefitted from trade with the Americas
¶ Greek revolt
Ø Against the Ottomans
Ø Nationalist revolt
Ø Supported by the Romantics- poets and artists
Ø Wanted to revive “Greek democracy”
Ø Britain and France intervened, but not to suppress the revolt, rather they went to help their fellow Christians, the Greeks, even though this revolt went against all the ideas of the Concert of Europe
Ø Russians invaded the Ottoman provinces Moldavia and Wallachia
Ø Treaty of Adrianople
§ Ended the Russo Turkish war- Russia got a “protectorate” over Moldavia and Wallachia
§ Russia, France, and Britain got to decide what to do about Greece à declared independence for Greece, but no democracy- Greece would be ruled by the son of the king of Bavaria
§ This nationalist revolt succeeded, but they ended up with a German monarch
Central Europe
¶ German Confederation
Ø Real aim was to suppress revolutionary movements in Germany
Ø No real executive and needed unanimous consent of the 38 states to do anything
¶ Prussia
Ø Had been the most liberal of the Germanic states
Ø But now they followed Metternich instead of enlightenment ideas such as abolishing serfdom, expanding education and universal conscription
¶ Austria
Ø Austria was most firmly opposed to liberalism and nationalism
§ Metternich did not want changes (especially nationalism) because the Austrian Empire was multinational (like the Bavarians, Slavs, etc.) and if the smaller nations felt national pride, then they will want to revolt and form their own nation
Ø Students, etc, wanted liberalism and nationalism
§ Friedrich Ludwig Jahn
· Honor, Liberty, Fatherland- slogans that the Austrian liberals and nationalists came up with
§ On the 300th anniversary of the Diet of Worms, the liberals burned conservative books
§ Conservative August von Kotzebue was killed by a crazy student (Karl Ludwig Sand) à Karlsbad Decrees
· Closed the Burschenschaftn (student societies with political goals)
· Censorship of the press
· More control over the universities
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