43/9/11
What were the causes and effects of the French Revolutions of 1830 and 1848?
v 1814 Louis XVIII became king of France
¨ Moderate
Ø Wanted to keep some revolutionary and Napoleonic changes
¨ Constitutional Charter of 1814
Ø Kept the Concordat with the Pope the Napoleon made
Ø Kept the Code Napoleon (equality before the law)
Ø Kept property rights of those who bought confiscated Church land
Ø Bicameral Legislature
Chamber of Peers (chosen by the king)
Chamber of Deputies (elected by 100,000 very rich people)
¨ Opposition
Ø Liberals wanted more revolutionary reforms
Ø Ultra-royalists wanted to go back to aristocratic domination and restore the Catholic Church
¨ He died…
v Charles X
¨ Ultra-royalist- “I would rather saw wood than be an English style king”
¨ Came to power in 1824
¨ Paid aristocrats who lost land during the revolution and tried to increase Church control over education à public outcry. People were furious that he was undoing the FR
¨ Compromises
Ø 1827 accepted “ministerial responsibility”- ministers are responsible to the legislature, not the king
Ø But then in 1830 he broke the promise, and when the legislature protested he sent them all home à new election that was won by the liberals à unhappy king L à attacked Algeria in June 1830 to distract the country from the domestic tension à quick victory in just 3 weeks (but really the war lasted until France won in 1847 and began French colonial expansion in Africa) à happy king J
¨ In the first flush of victory…
Ø Charles decided to repudiate the Constitutional Charter of 1814
Ø Issued the July Ordinances to limit the power of the people and increase the power of the king and aristocrats
Censorship of the press
Dissolve assembly (chamber that represented the people)
Cut the amount of people allowed to vote
Ø People were angry with the July Ordinances à July Revolution
Barricades in Paris
Provisional government of rich moderate liberals, who invited Louis Philippe to take over France (Orleans branch of the royal family)
Charles X fled to England
v Louis Philippe “the bourgeois monarch”
¨ Supported by the wealthy bourgeoisie (upper middle class) and acted and dressed like them, not like an aristocrat or king
¨ Made changes in favor of the upper bourgeoisie, not the lower bourgeoisie or the working class
Ø Slightly increased voting qualifications to include about 200,000 people
Ø Lesser bourgeoisie and working class got nothing
¨ Sponsored industrialization à growth of urban working class with all the usual problems à periodic worker unrest (demonstrations, strikes, violence) and an alliance with more radical republicans
Ø Louis Philippe used force against the workers- got an army to put down the violence and censored the press
¨ Chamber of Deputies had 2 political parties that were both upper middle class
Ø Party of Movement
Led by Adolphe Thiers
Wanted ministerial responsibility, active foreign policy (continue conquering other lands, gaining business opportunities, etc), limited increase in the number of voters
Ø Party of Resistance
Led by Francois Guizot
Want to resist anything new, different, or changing
v Revolution of 1848
¨ Based on liberalism and nationalism that continued to increase from the first revolutionary era (and will also spark other countries to revolt)
¨ Problems
Ø Industrial and agricultural depression started in 1846
Lower class- 1/3 workers unemployed
Ø Scandals, graft (bribery), and corruption in government
Ø Middle class was upset because they did not gain the right to vote
¨ Revolt
Ø Radical republicans + socialists + some upper middle class (led by Thiers) tried to oust Guizot, who was currently in power
Political rallies were forbidden, so they had political banquets to discuss ideas. They flourished so much that by 1847-8 there were 70 banquets in all of France. They planned a huge banquet on 2/22 à the government said no more banquets! à Everyone came anyway. Students and workers put up the barricades in Paris (oh they are so violent)
Louis Philippe failed to create a reform government, and he fled to England on 2/24
¨ Provisional government
Ø Moderate and radical republicans and included Louis Blanc (socialist)
Ø Representatives for a Constituent Assembly to draw up a new constitution were chosen by universal manhood suffrage
Ø Set up “national workshops” which are cooperative factories to be run by workers (this is so socialistic)
Did not work well- ended up with people being paid to rake leaves and dig ditches
Cost a fortune
à Split between moderate republicans and the radicals who were supported by the Paris workers
¨ June Days
Ø Elections to the National Assembly- moderate republicans won the majority (500 moderate republicans, 300 monarchists, 100 radicals)
Ø From March till June the # of “employees” of the national workshops exploded from 10,000 people to 120,000
Cost went through the roof- treasury was legit empty and the moderates were so scared
à Closed the workshops on 6/21 à workers revolted because they did not have jobs!!!!!! à Government used force to crush the uprising
¶ Thousands were killed
¶ 11,000 prisoners deported to Algeria
¶ Marx thought that this was the beginning of the big revolution (he was wrong)
Ø Result is a legacy of hatred between the middle class and workers and some analysts view it as “class warfare”
¨ New Constitution
Ø November 1848
Ø No more bicameral legislature- new unicameral legislature with 750 members (didn’t want the upper class to have a lot of influence)
Ø Election by universal male suffrage
Ø Representatives were elected for 3 year terms
Ø President (no king) chosen by universal male suffrage for 4 year term
Ø December 1848 President in a landslide = Louis Napoleon Bonaparte
Why did he win by so much?
¶ His name is Bonaparte so he appealed to Romantics and people who glorified the legend of Napoleon
¶ French were tired of revolution, and he promised he would bring stability and order
¶ The lower classes considered him to be a man of the people
What happened in France under the 2nd Empire and the 3rd Republic?
v Back to Empire
¨ Napoleon is “authoritarian”
Ø Argued that Napoleon I’s administrative, military, judicial, religious, and financial systems had sustained France for 50 years, so use his political system (empire with himself as emperor) as well
¨ Napoleon III’s system
Ø He controls army, police, and civil service
Ø Only he can initiate legislation and declare war
Ø Ministers are responsible to him
Ø Legislative Corps that was elected by universal male suffrage (looks democratic) but it cannot initiate laws or control budget. It’s virtually powerless
No opposition parties- if N doesn’t like you, you cannot run for election
3/10/11
v Domestic policies
¨ Early years- success
Ø Used government to stimulate economic growth (on the continent there was more government involvement in the industrial revolution)
Subsidies to help those who wanted to build railroads, canals, harbors
Economy boomed worldwide
Benefits for the poor
¶ Hospitals and free medicine for workers
¶ Rebuilt Paris with better housing for the working class (and also made wide boulevards that would be harder for people to barricade)
Ø Freedom is limited
No free speech
Censorship of the press
No freedom of assembly (no rallies)
However, he wanted to know what was going on and what people’s opinions were of him, so he had public opinion reports
¶ Constantly heard that people were unhappy, so he tried to do things to make people like him more
¨ Liberal Empire
Ø By the 1860s, discontent had been rising à the “liberal empire”
Ø Economic problems
Plant lice affected wine production
Silk work disease killed the silk industry
Financial crash
Ø Legalized trade unions to get worker support
Right to strike
Ø Allowed opposition candidates to campaign
Ø Legislature gained more say in money issues
v Foreign policy
¨ Goal: To get rid of the Congress of Vienna restriction and make France a major player in European world affairs
¨ Crimean War 1854-1856
Ø Initial success
Ø Cause
Ottoman Empire was very weak, so many European countries wanted to see what they could take from the empire (interest/meddling/ambition)
¶ Russia claimed to protect the Christians of the Ottoman Empire (but really wanted to interfere) and they wanted a larger sphere of influence
¶ Austria wanted Balkan land à means a fight with Russia
¶ France and Britain wanted trade and naval bases in the area
Immediate cause
¶ Russia demanded the right to “protect” Orthodox Christians in Palestine
¶ Ottomans refused because France had the right to “protect” Christianity there à Russians invaded Moldavia and Wallachia
¶ OE declared war on Russia. French and British supported the Ottomans (they don’t want Russia to be stronger- maintain balance of power)
¶ Russia expected Austria to help them, but Austria refused (“ingratitude” for earlier Russian help), and stayed neutral
Ø Results
Suffering and death
¶ 250,000 died mostly from cholera
¶ Florence Nightingale was British, and she was very strict about cleanliness in British war hospitals, which helped cut the death rate for British soldiers
Russia lost
¶ Forced to give up Bessarabia
¶ Russian had controlled the Black Sea, but now they had to accept the neutrality of the Black Sea
¶ Moldavia and Wallachia were independent, but under the influence of the great European powers (Britain and France)
End of the Concert of Europe
¶ Russia and Austria are enemies (no one really likes or trusts Austria anymore- they have no more friends)
¶ Russia withdrew from European (foreign) affairs for 20 years to work on domestic improvements
¶ Britain didn’t get so much out of the war, so they decided not to get involved so much anymore in the continent and became less interested in continental affairs
¶ New situation makes possible for the unification of Italy and Germany
France is the most obvious winner
¶ They gained prestige
¶ Louis Napoleon decided to champion nationalism
¨ Franco-Prussian War
Ø See next week
Ø à Defeat of Napoleon by the Prussians in 1870
3/11/11
v 3rd Republic
¨ A group of republicans set up a provisional government to take over after Napoleon
Ø Bismarck, the Prussian leader who was dominating France, told France that their provisional government was not good enough, and he forced France to form a government through universal male suffrage
Ø But the French chose monarchists, and not republicans. The monarchists had the majority of seats, and clearly dominated the National Assembly (400 out of 630 seats) à 3/26/71 Siege of Paris by the Prussians
Rich Parisians fled town, and the masses refused to accept the authority of the provisional government (it was willing to surrender to the Prussians) à radical republicans formed and independent government in Paris = the Paris Commune (France as a whole voted for the monarchists, but Paris was where the radicals were at and they voted for the republicans)
See Declaration to the French People in Sherman
¶ List of “usual” demands
Ø Recognitions and consolidation of the republic
Ø Other cities have a right to commune
Ø Absolute independence
Ø Inherent rights as a commune
Ø Right for economic reforms and universalize power and property (socialistic)
Ø Political unity
¶ Call for change
¶ Nationalistic and socialistic
National Assembly decided to crush the Paris Commune
¶ Commune was defended by the working class and women (Louise Michel)
¶ Fighting à government shot 20,000 people, 10,000 were sent out to New Caledonia, including Louise Michel
¶ Result
Ø Increased the split between middle and working classes that had begun around 1848-9
Ø Working class women became much less active- harsh treatment of women discouraged further efforts to improve conditions
¨ Monarchists couldn’t agree on who should be the monarch, so they wrote a new constitution in 1875 which established a republic- the 3rd Republic
Ø Bicameral legislature
Upper house elected indirectly
Lower house elected by universal male suffrage
Ø President chosen by the legislature for a 7 year term (intended for stability)
Ø This system was intended to be temporary, but it lasted for 65 years
1876-1877 elections à republican majorities
¶ Ministerial responsibility to the Chamber of Deputies (lower house)
¨ The 3rd Republic
Ø Moderate government
Ø Supported by the peasants and middle class
Ø Opposition from the monarchists, the Church (didn’t like the secularity of the government and they wanted more influence), and army officers
Ø This temporary government lasted 65 years because republicans were brought to power who did not want a monarchy
Ø 1880 Boulanger Affair strengthened the republic
General Boulanger decided to put power, but in the last minute he decided not to and fled France
Result- rallied support for the government strengthened the republic
3/14/11
France sneezes, and the rest of Europe catches a cold
What were the causes and results of the other revolutions in 1830 and 1848?
v 1830
¨ French revolution had been liberal, but everywhere else the cause was nationalism
¨ Belgium was successful
Ø Former Austrian Netherlands
Ø They were attached to the Dutch Netherlands, but they were culturally very different (They were Catholic, spoke a different language, etc.)
Ø Belgium successfully won its independence from the Dutch Republican
¨ Poland failed to win its independence from Russia
¨ Italy
Ø Revolts in Papal States, Parma, and Modena
Ø Austria sent in troops and suppressed all of the revolts
Ø However, it awakened Italian nationalism
v Nationalism
¨ Based on an awareness of being part of a community with common attributes
¨ You are loyal to a nation, the people of your nation, your national tradition
¨ Started in the 1st French Revolution
¨ Originally based on culture, but political nationalism rose because people with common language and culture should have a common land with national unity and a central government
¨ In large empires, the other nationalities want their own land
¨ Desire for a united government
¨ A radical movement because it changes what already exists. It means change, so the conservatives want to break it up
Ø United Germany or Italy would upset the balance of power created in 1815
Ø Would destroy existing empires, specifically Austria
Ø Giving one nationality independence in the Austrian Empire would cause other nationalities to want independence as well
¨ For the first half of the 19th century, nationalism and liberalism were allies, because they both want change. Liberals believed that in order to have political liberty, people needed to be free nationally and have a voice
v Central Europe
¨ Rural and urban tensions due to an agricultural depression started in 1845
¨ March 1848 news of the Paris revolution à
Ø Handcraft workers in German states attack machines
Ø Peasants loot and burn manor houses
¨ Result
Ø Many German rulers promised reforms: constitutions, free press, jury trials, etc.
Ø King Frederick William IV agrees to abolish censorship, establish a new constitution, and work for a united Germany
Ø All the German states agreed on universal male suffrage to elect deputies to an all German parliament in Frankfort to prepare a constitution for a new united Germany
¨ Frankfort Assembly
Ø Well educated middle class delegates were extremely nationalistic, more so than the states that sent them
Ø Goal was to write a constitution and unify Germany
Ø Claimed to be a government for “all of Germany”
Grossdeutsch v. Kleindeutsch quarrel
Is it a Grossdeautsch, a big Germany including Austria, or a Kleindeutsch, a smaller Germany excluding Austria so the Prussian king could be the ruler
Austrians were mad with the whole thing so they left à Kleindeutsch seemed to win
Frederick William IV was offered the title of Emperor of the Germans à He did not accept- he wanted to be Emperor of Germany. He ordered the delegation home.
The Frankfort Assembly was an epic fail- there was no way to force the rulers to accept their constitution
v Austrian Empire
¨ Social, political, and nationalistic complaints + news from Paris (1848 revolution) à revolt
¨ Hungary
Ø Liberal gentry under Louis Kossuth wanted “commonwealth”- wanted to keep the Hapsburg king but be a separate country with their own legislature
Ø Protests in Budapest, Prague, and Vienna à Metternich was dismissed and he fled
¨ Vienna (Austria)
Ø Liberal propertied class demanded a constituent assembly to draw up a liberal constitution
¨ Hungary won
Ø It was granted its own legislature, army, and control over budget, but remained under the same Austrian ruler
¨ In Prague, the Czechs wanted the same deal Hungary got
¨ Problems
Ø Emperor Ferdinand I and Austrian officials, however, saw the changes as temporary acts to appease the revolutionaries
Conservatives work on the middle class to arouse fears of a working class social revolution
Ø Revolutionaries disagreed- moderates v. more radical revolutionaries
Ø General Windischgratz
Suppressed the Czech revolt in June 1848
Mob in Vienna killed the minister of war à Windischgratz attacked Vienna to crush the liberal rebels there (Windischgratz worked quickly and got rid of the rebellions- he makes things go “gone with the Windischgratz”)
¨ By December of 1848 the Emperor abdicated in favor of his nephew Francis Joseph I (1848-1916)
Ø Francis Joseph tried to restore imperial government
In Hungary- Austrian armies could not suppress Kossuth (liberal leader of Hungarians) until Nicholas I of Russia sent help
The revolution in Austria had failed- autocratic government and control of the propertied classes was completely restored, and the nationalities were subject to the Austrian government
¶ 1851 revolutionary constitutions were replaced by centralized autocracy (everyone has to listen to the Austrians)
¶ Prime Minister Alexander von Bach imposed a unified administration, law, and tax system administered by German speaking officials (Bach brought everything back and unified)
¶ Hungary under military rule
¶ Church control of education and Catholic is the state religion
3/15/11
¨ One lasting fact of the revolutions of 1848 = Emancipation Act
Ø Freed the serfs
Ø Eliminated labor service
¨ After 1850 increasing industrialization, especially in Vienna, Galicia, and Bohemia à economic and social changes
Ø New industrial middle class
Ø Labor unrest- workers are unhappy
Ø Growing urban proletariat
Ø But all of this doesn’t cause any change in the government
¨ Real change resulted from the economic problems AND failure in war
Ø 1859 Austria lost in Italy à Emperor Francis Joseph tried to set up a parliament (Reichsrat) with an appointed upper house and elected lower house (democracy like)
Ø Problem- the electoral system was rigged
Supposed to represent non-German minorities too, but the numbers were rigged to produce a German majority à angry minorities, especially Hungarians
¨ More military defeats à Ausgliech (compromise) of 1867
Ø Created the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary
Ø Made what the Hungarians asked for in 1848
Each half had separate parliaments and capitals, but had one ruler, military, foreign policy, and finances (separate for domestic affairs but shared for foreign affairs)
Ø Did nothing to help the other minorities- Poles, Czechs, Slovenes, Serbs, Slovaks, Little Russians à criticism by Kossuth who said that the Hungarian liberals are selling out their ideals to gain for Hungary, and doing nothing for the other minorities
¨ Nationalities problem continues
Ø Austria had a constitution with ministerial responsibility, but Francis Joseph ignored that and appointed and dismissed ministers and ruled by decree when parliament was out of session
Ethnic Germans = 1/3 of the Austrian population and run the government
¶ They are “threatened” by Poles, Czechs, and other Slavic peoples
Ø PM Count Edward von Taaffe used a combo of German conservatives, Poles, and Czechs to control the Parliament
Allowed the use of Slavic languages in addition to German in schools and administration à angry German bureaucrats and aristocracy, and unsatisfied minorities (they wanted more)
Von Taaffe lost power in 1893, but the nationalities problem remained and became even greater
Ø They were given universal male suffrage, which made the nationalities problem grow worse because they agitated for autonomy
Ø After 1900 the government rules by decree, and mostly ignored Parliament
¨ Meanwhile in Hungary
Ø Had a working parliamentary system
Dominated by Magyar (Hungarian) landowners, who dominate the peasants and other nationalities
Magyarization
¶ Only Hungarian can be used in schools, government, and military
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