3/16/11
How did Italy become unified?
v In the 16th century, most of the European countries established states, except for Italy. Finally, in the 19th century, Italy unified
v Before 1850, Austria dominated Italy
¨ Directly ruled Lombardy and Venetia
¨ Hapsburg relatives ruled Tuscany and Modena
¨ Pope had the Papal States, which were supported and had good relations with Austria
¨ Other states- French Bourbons in Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
v Awakening nationalism
¨ 1830 Nationalist uprising quelled by Austria à discredited secret societies that had started the revolts, because they seen as unsuccessful
¨ Giuseppe Mazzini
Ø Strong nationalist
Ø Republican- doesn’t want royal rule at all
Ø Risorgimento (resurgence)
Movement to resurge ationalism and Italian identity
Ø Young Italy
Organization he started to form one free, independent, republican Italy
Members had to swear loyalty to creating the kind of Italy Mazzini had in mind
Ø The Duties of Man
Supported independence
Also supported by women: Cristina Belgiojoso
¶ Wealthy aristocrat
¶ Moved to Paris to avoid getting in trouble by the Italians for publishing her opinion
v 1848 Nationalist rebellions seemed to succeed but were eventually suppressed
¨ Started in Sicily and moved north à rulers granted constitutions to their own state (liberal, but still not unified)
¨ Lombardy and Venetia rebelled against Austria, led by Charles Albert, the King of Piedmont in a “war of liberation” against Austria
Ø Problem- Austria successfully counterattacked, and reestablished control of Lombardy and Venetia
¨ Results
Ø Counterrevolutionaries suppressed the liberals everywhere, and all liberal constitutions were revoked, except in Piedmont where Charles Albert kept a liberal constitution
Ø France helped the Pope regain control in Rome (now Pope is dependent on France)
¨ Why were the revolts a failure?
Ø As soon as revolutions succeeded, the upper classes did not want to give power to the lower classes
Ø Split among the revolutionaries (everywhere except France)
Moderate liberals (property owners) did not want to give suffrage to the working class
Radicals demanded UMS à moderate liberals joined the old ruling classes to keep their property and avoid a social revolution
Ø Some more religious people wanted the Pope to lead a confederation of the Italian states (this idea is not really going anywhere)
v Nationalists turn to Piedmont Sardinia as the leader of the national movement
¨ But, Piedmont Sardinia is not a republic, which is what the nationalists aspired for Italy. It was a liberal monarchy. Mazzini’s dream of a nationalist republic would not happen
¨ New king of Piedmont Sardinia was Victor Emmanuel II
Ø Need for weapons makes the nationalists support his monarchy
¨ Count Cavour was elected Prime Minister alongside Victor Emmanuel II
Ø Admired the British Parliamentary system
Ø Wanted economic liberalism and industrial growth
Ø Wealthy
Ø Fantastic politician- extremely persuasive
Ø Wanted to build up the economy
Bank loans to increases investment
Infrastructure- roads, canals, railroads
à More money brought that was spent on the army
Ø Made a deal with Napoleon III to challenge Austria
Plan
¶ Piedmont would get Lombardy, Venetia, Parma, Modena, and part of the Papal States
¶ France would get Nice and Savoy from Piedmont
¶ A new kingdom would be created in central Italy for Napoleon III’s cousin (Prince Napoleon), who would marry Victor Emmanuel’s daughter
¨ War
Ø Cavour provoked Austria into attacking
France came in and aided Piedmont as planned, won battles at Magenta and Solferino
Napoleon made a separate peace with Austria
¶ Realized that defeating Austria could be long and costly
¶ Prussia was mobilizing to help Austria, and France did not want to fight Austria AND Prussia
Ø Result
Piedmont got Lombardy
Cavour was furious at Napoleon
¨ Nationalists seized control in Parma, Modena, and part of the Papal states
Ø Held plebiscites (vote to ask the people what they want), and the people voted to join Piedmont
Ø Napoleon agreed to the annexation in exchange for Nice and Savoy
Ø Now, the northern Italian states are united
v Enter Giuseppe Garibaldi
¨ Italian patriot
¨ Supported Mazzini and republicans, à exiled to Latin America, where he learned Guerrilla warfare
¨ Had fought in 48-49, and in the war against Austria in 59
¨ Cavour was afraid of him and his influence, and wanted him out of the way à sent him to southern Italy (Sicily) to help the revolutionaries there against the Bourbons
Ø Landed with 1000 Red Shirts (army) in May 1860
Speech in Roselle p312
Ø Mass support à control of most of Sicily, and then Naples, and then continued north en route to Rome
Cavour did not want him to take Rome
¶ He was afraid the French would get involved to help the pope
¶ Did not want democratic republicanism
à Cavour sent the Piedmont army to stop Garibaldi in Naples
Garibaldi had the choice to either fight Piedmont or stop. His nationalism outweighed his republicanism, so he stopped fighting
v Plebiscites in the Kingdom of Two Sicilies, Papal States, and Naples, and the people voted to join Piedmont à Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in 1861 under King Victor Emmanuel II. YAY!!
¨ Problems- Venetia is still ruled by Austria, and Rome is under French protection
¨ Completing Italy
Ø 1866 Austro-Prussian War
Italy was backed by Prussia
Austrians defeated the Italian army, but Prussia defeated Austria and gave Venetia to Italy
Ø Franco-Prussian War à withdrawal of French troops from Rome and the Italian army annexed Rome
Ø Pope was very angry about the unification- he locked himself in the Vatican, and did not recognize the authority of the Italian government. He was the “prisoner” of the Vatican
Efforts to reconcile with the Pope did not succeed
¶ Law of Papal Guarantees
Ø Pope can rule Vatican City
Ø Pope can appoint bishops
Ø Pope got money for the land he lost
Ø But, the Pope did not accept it
¨ Problems after the unification
Ø Differences between the north and south
North was more developed and wealthier than the south
Ø Tried to fix the illiteracy problem
Ø Economic problems
Ø Many people left Italy
3/17/11
How did Germany finally become united?
Bismarck, blood, and iron
v 1848 history
¨ Review what we learned earlier with Central Europe
v Germans still looked to Austria and Prussia to lead the nation and the unification
¨ Austria was the traditional leader
¨ Prussia was increasingly important, especially economically
Ø Zollverein
Economic customs union in the German states that encouraged trade among the German states by cutting tolls and taxes
By 1853, all German states except Austria were part of the union
Ø In 1848 Prussia had a constitutional monarchy with a strong ruler
Bicameral legislature with lower class elected by ums, but the rich dominated the government. By 1859 it was the wealthy middle class, not the landowners, who were the dominant rich
Parliament had power to legislate and tax, but ministers answered to the king, not parliament
¨ 1861 new king William I (1861-1888)
Ø Army reform- make army more powerful
Worked with the minister for war, von Roon, and chief of the army general staff, von Moltke
Doubled the size
Wanted everyone to be drafted into the army and trained, but liberals were against this, and rejected the military budget
Ø Appointed Otto von Bismarck prime minister
Of the Junker class (all the “vons” are Junkers)
Good at judging rulers and understanding their capabilities
Politician and opportunist
Wanted to only use war as a last resort, and only if he is sure he will win
Followed Machiavelli
Resubmitted army budget, and made an appeal to the liberal nationalists to pass it
¶ Blood = war
¶ Iron = industrialization
¶ We are leaders of Germany because we have the military and industry to be so
¶ Even though the liberals rejected the budget, Bismarck collected the taxes and reorganized the army anyway, and then blamed the liberals
¨ War (all Bismarck)
Ø Danish War 1864
Denmark tried annex some German territory (Schleswig and Holstein)
The people were furious
Bismarck gets Austria to join in a war against Denmark
Prussia wins, and Austria and Prussia split the spoils
¶ Austria got to run Holstein
¶ Prussia got Schleswig
à Lots of disputes between Prussia and Austria
Ø Austro-Prussian War (Seven Weeks War) 1866
Bismarck realized that for Prussia to dominate the north, Lutheran areas of Germany, he would have to push out Austria
Wanted to also kick out any friends of Austria
Proved the effectiveness of military reforms (Prussian breech loaders were faster than Austrian muzzle load guns) and railroads
Set up for the war- isolate Austria so they would not have help
¶ Russia agreed to be neutral as a reward for Prussian help earlier
¶ Napoleon was bought off with promises of territory along the Rhine
¶ Italy was promised Venetia
¶ This gave Austria no allies
Prussia won
Result
¶ “Gentle peace”- didn’t want Austria to be an enemy, so he went easy on them
¶ Italy got Venetia
¶ Ended the German Confederation that was led by Austria, and replaced it with the North German Confederation, led by Prussia
Ø King of Prussia is the head of the confederation
Ø Bicameral legislature- Bundestag and Reichstag
Ø Chancellor (Bismarck) responsible to the king
Ø Domestic
§ Legalized Bismarck’s taxes (retroactive)
§ Proof that liberalism and nationalism can be separate (Bismarck was a conservative, and also an extreme nationalist)
¶ Prussia annexed Holstein, Sleiswag, Frankfort, etc, while the south German states remained independent but were forced to sign military agreements with Prussia
Ø Franco-Prussian War (Seven Months War) 1870-1871
France and Prussia were looking for a fight
¶ France was nervous of the growing German state on their border
¶ Napoleon wanted to be diplomatic
Excuse- Spain
¶ There was a revolution in Spain that deposed Queen Isabella II à need a new king à offered the throne to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern Sigmaringen (a distant relative of the Prussian leaders) à France didn’t want to be surrounded by Hohenzollerns à King William of Prussia told his cousin to forget about it à France was unsatisfied, and demanded a formal apology from William and a promise that Leopold will never be a candidate for the Spanish throne à William sent Bismarck a telegraph saying Napoleon’s request, and Bismarck edited to telegraph and made it sound insulting to the French, and released it to the press (Ems dispatch) à France was angry and declared war
¶ Basically, Bismarck was completely behind the war and got France to attack
Again, the Prussians had better weapons and railroads, which benefited them
At Sedan, Napoleon and an entire French army were captured
Prussia won, France lost, and the 2nd Empire in France ended
Results
¶ Harsh peace for France
Ø Indemnity (had to pay 5 billion Francs to Germany for the cost of the war)
Ø Germany took Alsace-Lorraine
¶ South German states joined the North German Confederation, which became the Second German Empire (First German Empire was the HRE). They announced the creation of the new empire in Versaille, which really rubbed it in France’s face
3/23/11
¨ German Government
Ø Bicameral legislature
Upper house (Bundesrat- represented the 25 German states) and lower house (Reichstag- ums)
Ø Each state kept its own ruler
Had their own post offices and armies in peace time
Ø Chancellor answers to emperor
Ø Kaiser (emperor) controlled virtually everything- administration, army, foreign policy
Ø No political democracy (legislature did not have so much power) can be blamed on Bismarck and the army
The army was very loyal to the monarchy
Officers were the Junkers who were aristocrats and did not believe in equality
Avoided parliamentary controlled- they answered directly to the emperor (not legislature)
Ø Bismarck
Worked with the liberals (even though he was conservative) to centralize the government
Then he attacked the Catholic Church- Kulturkampf
¶ Bismarck did not like the new idea of the Pope being infallible (never wrong). He wanted to rid too much influence from Catholic Church
¶ He took control of the schools
¶ Kicked out the Jesuits
¶ Required civil marriage
¶ The whole thing backfired. Instead of weakening the Church, the Catholic Center Party (political party) gained votes à Bismarck abruptly shifted policy in 1878 (and blamed the whole thing on the Jews)
1878 abandoned the Liberals and set about to persecute socialists
¶ One of many socialists parties, the Social Democratic Party, had elected 12 representatives to the Reichstag
Ø Bismarck dislike them- they were anti nationalistic, anti capitalistic, anti monarchy- to Bismarck, that = danger to the empire à got parliament to outlaw the SDP, and limited freedom of speech, press, and assembly for them (however, other socialist parties can still run)
Ø Bismarck tried to undercut the appeal of the socialists by progressive legislation (wanted to treat the workers and poor people better)
§ Old age pensions (first public pension program anywhere)- limits: age 70 and 48 years of work
§ Willing to spend money on things that might not be profitable so people could have jobs
§ In emergency (if a major company failed) the state should provide employment
Ø Despite these efforts, socialism still grew. Bismarck wanted to be more repression, but then he was fired by the new Kaiser, William II
BLESS UR SOUL
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