5/3/11
How did Western Europe change in the postwar era?
v Growth growth growth
¨ Political developments
Ø At first communists did well- legacy of anti-Nazi fight
Ø Later decline as the SU lost support the in the cold war (France and Italy communist parties stayed at 25% level by focusing on social inequality- avoided support for Stalin)
Ø Socialists had support after the war, but faded during the cold war
Ø 1950’s moderate parties made a comeback, especially Christian Democrats who wanted democracy and economic reform (cared about the poor)
¨ By 1950 “recovery” was complete and growth continued on
Ø Prosperity and nearly full employment
v France- de Gaulle
¨ Reestablished the glory of France
¨ Did not like the “weakness” of the 4th republic (which was established after WWII) à “withdrew from politics”, formed a right wing French Popular Movement à 1958 new constitution for a 5th French republic
Ø Factors à new system
Loss in Indochina
?? Algeria
¶ Anti war intellectuals + Church leaders were against the fight
¶ Army wanted a victory, some officers revolt against their own gov’tà with civil war a danger, the 4th Rep leaders turn to de Gaulle and offer him the gov’t and changes to the constitution
¨ 5th French Republic
Ø Strong president: chooses PM, can dissolve Parliament, controls foreign policy, supervises defense
Ø De Gaulle’s policies
Return French glory
Wanted a more pivotal role in the Cold War à pulled out of the NATO high command
Nuclear weapons
Withdrawal from Algiers à led more prestige in 3rd world
Ø Economic
Nuclear cost increased defense spending
Centralized government reflected in centralized economic decision making
¶ Nationalized industries: RR, coal, steel à expansion and deficits
France became a major exporter of autos and weapons
Growth, growth
Problems
¶ Housing shortages, lack of sufficient hospitals, schools, cost of living rose
¨ End of de Gaulle
Ø Problems à May ’68 student strikes, labor unions had general strikes
Ø De Gaulle restored order- lost prestige and resigned in April 1969
v West Germany- Konrad Adenauer
¨ Allies allowed political parties
Ø Social Democrats (SPD)
Ø *Christian Democrats (CDU)
Ø Free Democrats (FDP)
¨ Reconciled with France
¨ Joined NATO in 1955
Ø Were allowed to rearm as a defense against E. Germany and communism
¨ Economic
Ø Postwar economic growth was the complete opposite of Germany post-WWI
Ø Ludwig Erhard
1955 W. Germany had a greater GNP than prewar Germany
Real wages doubled
Unemployment was so low (.4%) that they imported “guest workers” (however, this led to problems in the future)
¨ De-Nazification
Ø Nuremberg trials 1945-46
Ø 1953 payments to Holocaust survivors and to Israel
¨ Adenauer resigned in ’63, followed by Erhard with similar policies
¨ Economic downturn in the mid 60’s à rise of Social Democrats
v Great Britain- Welfare State
¨ Labour Party (more socialistic) à welfare state
¨ Clement Atlee
Ø Nationalized the Bank of England, coal, steel, transportation, and utilities
Ø Social welfare reforms
National Insurance Act 1946
¶ Social security
National Health Services Act
¶ Medical insurance
Ø Cut expenses abroad (to pay for the welfare)- dismantled the empire (and England stopped becoming a great power)
¨ Most European countries also adopted the welfare state approach
¨ Continuing economic problems à Conservatives 1951-1964
Ø Private enterprises and continuing welfare state (added housing for the poor)
Ø Long tern economic decline
Unions demanded larger increases than productivity
Old industrial technology and methods
Lost revenue from abroad (no empire) but still had debt from international obligations
Result: Britain was much less of a power
v Italy
¨ Abolished the monarchy and became a Democratic Republic
¨ ’48 first postwar election won by the Christian Democrats
Ø Alcide de Gaspieri- he held office for a very looong time for Italy- 5 years
¨ Economic miracle here too
Ø Marshall plan
Ø Combined private enterprise with government management, especially in heavy industry
¨ Problems
Ø Still had disparity between the industrialized and developed north from the poor underdeveloped south à migration north and even out of Italy
v Social Changes
¨ Social structure
Ø Increasing middle class
New manager positions
Specialized knowledge
White collar jobs were considered middle class
Ø Many peasants moved to more urban areas (people were no longer on the farms)
Ø Factory jobs also decreased because more people took up white collar jobs
Ø Consumer society
Real wages went up
Lower classes could buy more
Workers could by cars, televisions, washing machines, etc
¨ Installment plan
Ø People paid for merchandise out in a stretch of time
¨ More leisure à commercialized popular culture
Ø Shorter workweeks
Ø Europeans got more paid holidays
Ø Music, sports, media, mass tourism
¨ Welfare state
Ø Expansion of state power over the individual citizen
on the other hand…
on the other hand…
Ø Goal of the state to better give more meaningful lives for the individual
Ø New mind set: society’s obligation to make people have good lives (society should not allow people to be sick, homeless, uneducated, etc). These new 20th century liberals wanted the government to be actively involved in people’s lives (the exact opposite of 19th century liberals!)
Ø Generally, existing benefits in countries were increased and extended to more people
Ø Tried to remove class barriers for education
Ø Cost of welfare state went up and up
¨ Women
Ø Initially, women left the work force as returning soldiers got jobs
Ø They wanted women to stay home and be domestic to take care of children. They believed that working women was very socialistic. In the SU, women were encouraged to work
Ø Baby boom, but the birth rates dropped at the end of the ‘50’s
Ø Smaller families à more married women in the workforce
Ø Feminist movement
WWI and WWII à achieved the 19th century aim of suffrage
1945-60 little feminist talk, most women went “traditional”
1960 “women’s liberation movement”
¶ Political and legal equality does not = true equality
¶ Simone de Beauvoir- The Second Sex
Ø Thought society imposed more limits on women than men
¨ Permissive society
Ø Critics believed people had the ability to do whatever they wanted, which was bad
Ø Extensive drugs, alcohol, and sex
Ø Sweden was the first country to give sex-ed in schools
Ø Oral contraceptive for women gave them freer attitudes
Ø Result
Increased divorce rates
Drug culture- marijuana and LSD were common on college campuses
¨ Education and student revolts
Ø France- students wanted more control over their education
Workers joined protest but de Gaulle gave them wage hikes and they went home
Police ended the protest
Ø W. Berlin- similar protest against Axel Springer
Herbert Marcuse
Ø Protests against the Vietnam War inflamed the French and German protestors
How did European foreign relations change after WWII?
v Cuban Missile Crisis
¨ Khrushchev was upset over Kennedy not pulling westerners out of West Berlin
¨ ’59 Castro took over Cuba
¨ ’61 Bay of Pigs
Ø US tried to invade Cuba, but it was an epic failure
¨ ’62 Khrushchev tried to put nuclear missiles in Cuba
Ø à Naval blockade
¨ Compromise (SU ships with missiles turned around, and the US promised not to invade Cuba) à other efforts to avoid conflict
Ø Hotline communications
Private telephone line between the US president and leader of Russia to avoid going to war by mistake
Ø Nuclear test ban treaty- no more atmospheric testing
v Decolonization
¨ US started with the Philippines 1946
¨ Britain let India go in 1947
¨ Others followed
Ø Indonesia became independent from the Dutch
¨ France tried to hold on in Indochina
Ø SE Asia – Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia
Ø Algeria- FLN won and de Gaulle accepted it in ‘62
Ø Gave Morocco independence
¨ Africa
Ø All the African countries eventually became independent starting in ’57 with Ghana
Ø Belgium freed the Congo
v Neocolonialism
¨ A charge leveled after independence by African countries that did not like European economic influence
¨ 1st world- Japan, Western Europe, and North America (industrialized non-Communist countries)
¨ 2nd world- Soviet Union and its satellites
¨ 3rd world- backwards, unindustrialized nations
5/4/11
Why was the period after 1975 a different era in European history?
Stagnation stagflation instead of growth growth
v Economic downturn
¨ Severe recession 1973-74 and 1979-83
¨ Rising unemployment
¨ Sharp increased price in oil by OPEC
¨ Worldwide recession and declined demand for European goods
v Mid 1980’s- recovery
¨ Integration of European economies
Ø Started before 1975 when Europeans wanted to unify, but didn’t want to give up their nationalism and independence à economic unity (European Coal and Steel Community, ECSC- “common market” for coal and steel) as opposed to political unity
1957 Euratom
EEC = European Economic Community = Common Market (free trade within the group, and a common tariff against outsiders)
1957 Euratom
EEC = European Economic Community = Common Market (free trade within the group, and a common tariff against outsiders)
Ø EEC à EC by the addition of Great Britain, Ireland, Denmark, Spain, Portugal, and Greece. Largest single trading entity with ¼ of the world’s commerce by 1992
¨ Maastricht Treaty- Treaty on European Union
Ø Economic and monetary union 1999, 11 countries adopted the Euro as a common currency
v Political conditions
¨ Economic union à more political consultations
¨ Democracy spread to the “holdouts”
Ø Spain: Franco died in ’75, King Juan Carlos brought in a democratic constitution
Ø Portugal: dictator Salazar had a stroke in ’68, Caetano continued dictatorship until Carnation Revolution in ‘74
¨ Decline of Western communist parties as “eurocommunism”- support better government within a democratic system
v West Germany à Germany
¨ Voters go from center right of the CD to center left SD+FD 1969-1982
¨ Willy Brandt
Ø “Opening to the East” = Ostpolitik
Ø 1972 Basic Treaty with East Germany- agreed to have friendly relations
Ø Resigned in ’74 because people saw he was giving too much to the East
¨ Helmut Schmidt- technocrat- politicians doing things based on scientific principles based on what was best for the time
¨ Helmut Kohl
Ø 1989 East Germany’s revolution à reunification of West and East Germany
Ø Germany became a leading power
Ø Problems because of unification
East was underdeveloped, backwards, with no idea of democracy
¨ 1998 election- Social Democrats
¨ 2005 Christian Democratic Union + coalition: Angela Merkel became the first woman, East German, and scientist to be Chancellor of Germany
v Great Britain
¨ 64-79 Conservatives and Labour alternated
Ø Ireland
Catholics and Protestants were really violent
2007 Gerry Adams of Sinn Fein and Reverand Ian Paisley (Democratic Unionist Party) agreed to power sharing à Paisley and McGuiness (friends of Adams) became the leader and deputy leader of the government- ended direct British rule. However, Ireland still had economic problems
¨ 1979 Margaret Thatcher was elected PM- Conservative (would tried to undo the whole welfare state)
Ø Thatcherism- Margaret Thatcher’s conservative economic policy
Cut the power of the labor unions
Limit the expenses for social welfare
Control inflation
Results: economy improved some places, but there was still unemployment and poverty. Worst result was education cuts that made the education in England not as good as it used to be
Ø Foreign policy- like Ronald Reagan- hardline anti-Communism
Falklands Islands war
Military buildup
Ø 1990 poll tax (rich and poor pay the same) à unpopular- 1992 resigned but conservatives continued under John Major
¨ 1997 Tony Blair- Labour
v France: uncertainties
¨ Economic problems à Socialists were elected, led by Francois Mitterand 1981
Ø Economic reforms
More social benefits
Higher taxes on the rich
Ø Administrative reforms
Nationalization of some large industry
Decentralization of government
These two reforms are complete opposites
Ø Problems with socialist policies à “about face” = “Modernization” (return to private enterprise) à more success and Mitterand stayed in power until 1995
Ø Later there were more conservatives- Jacques Chirac, Nicholas Sarkozy
v Italy: confusion
¨ 50 governments in less than 50 years
¨ Terrorist attacks
Ø Also Moro kidnapped and killed by the Red Brigades (Marxists/Leninists who wanted a revolution)
Ø Mafia spread from southern Italy to the north
¨ Government corruption and bribery
v Social changes
¨ Women
Ø Women became more active in the workforce
Ø More women attended university
Ø Women still did not get equal pay
Ø Lower birthrate- abortion and contraceptive were legalized in more countries
Ø New cultural attitudes- women’s studies in colleges
Ø Women’s movement
Joined with other movements to get more attention
¶ Petra Kelly of the German Green
Wanted equality in political and economic roles
¨ Terrorism
Ø 1972 Munich Olympics
Ø Palestinians
Ø Left- Bader-Meinhof gang (Red Army/ Red Brigade- wanted Marxist revolutions)
Ø Right- New Order in Italy and Charles Martel in France
Ø Nationalist based terrorists were more effective because they were backed by their countries
IRA
Ø Counterterrorism
German rescue of ‘91 Lufthansa passengers who were hijacked to Mogadishu
1986 disco bombing of a W. German club targeted American soldiers à Reagan bombed Libya
¨ Guest Workers
Ø Labor shortages during the earlier growth period à imported workers à problems, because these workers complained (they weren’t being paid equally). Also, when the countries didn’t need them anymore, they wouldn’t leave. Also led to an increase in immigration because some of these workers missed their families
Ø Franz Schonhuber- wanted to stop all new immigrants, and not let settled immigrants stay
Ø Jean Marie LePen- foreigners would destroy French culture
¨ Environment and the Greens
Ø Eastern Europeans did not care about the environment
Ø Chernobyl in the SU
Ø Global warming, pollution, etc
Ø Ministries were created to protect the environment, green movements and green parties
Ø Green Party
Germany
Elected 44 deputies to Parliament in 1987
Ø Results
People were more aware of the environment
Green parties often formed coalitions with others
Co-opt- traditional parties agreed to be green too!
¨ Culture
Ø Postmodernism in art
Ø Abstract expressionism continued- Anselm Kiefer
Ø Postmodernism- people went back to older art styles
Ø Respect for traditional crafts- weavers, potmakers
Ø Music
Serialism- Oliver Messien- atonal
Minimalism- tonal, harmonic, repetition
Ø Theater- theater of the absurd
Disillusionment with fixed beliefs in religion and politics; world is meaningless
¶ Becket’s Waiting for Godot- what’s happening now?
¶ Vaclav Havel Memorandum- criticism of the communists (imposing artificial systems based on ideology)
¨ Existentialism
Ø Sartre and Camus
Absence of G-d in the universe leaves humans alone with no preordained destiny, no future, and no hope
Ø Sartre
Existence precedes essence
Man is what he makes of himself
Ø Camus
World is absurd, only basis of hope is oneself
¨ Religious revival
Ø Protestant: Karl Barth- sinful humans only know truth through grace (not reason)
Ø Catholic
Karl Rahner- continuity between ancient and modern
John XXIII Vatican II
¶ Liberalized Catholic practices (you can have meat on Friday)
¶ Open communication w/ other Christians and kinder attitude to Jews (Jews today are not responsible for the death of Jesus)
John Paul II
¶ First non-Italian pope since the 16th century
¶ Traditional
¶ Pushed for social justice, condemned war and nuclear weapons, tried to make the world a better place
¨ Science and technology
Ø Computer vs. small is beautiful
Ø Chemical fertilizers
Ø
¨ Pop culture- you should be so lucky
Ø Films
Ø TV
Ø Radio
Ø Music- Beatles!
Ø Mass sports- TV made this accessible to everyone
How have the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe changed since Stalin?
(Sorry these notes aren’t in my usual indentations, by I was getting lazy)
Post WWII—Stalin
War devastation à ‘old policies’ of squeeze labor to get $ for rebuilding
Women do heavy manual labor
Result: success
By 1947, production was at prewar level
1946 5 year plan was finished in less than 5 years
Military benefits
Could develop nuclear weapons, fighters, and Sputnik
Problem: Returning soldiers saw how much better everything was outside Russia. Stalin’s response- lock them up
Stricter censorship- all literary and scientific works were invalid unless they supported the state.
Accused Jews of plotting to kill Communist officials, but Stalin died before he could carry it out
Nikita Khrushchev
1956 He denounced Stalin for a ‘cult of personality’
More freedom for writers: Solzhenitsyn’s A Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovitch (the daily life of a person in the gulag)
deStalinizatrion
Beria (head of the secret police) executed
Closed prison camps
Destalinization à spirit of rebellion in the satellites of E. Europe à 56 Hungarian uprising, suppressed by force
Economic: more consumer goods
Efforts to expand cultivated land failed
Other leaders didn’t like his jokes and efforts to lessen their privileges
Foreign policy failures—Cuban Missile crisis
Politburo (head group of the party) kicked him out for “deteriorating health” and he could not run the SU anymore
Brezhnev
Vietnam– “proxy war”
Post Vietnam War— détente (a period of less intense hostility) after ‘75
Eastern Europe was a lot like the Soviet Union, but Communism wasn’t popular among the Eastern European people
Generally satellites [coalition start à CP take over]
Yugoslavia a little more nationalist under Tito
Under Stalin generally following his policy—former enemies [WWII] have to pay
Khrushchev—less tight control
Less interference
Countries still could not become independent of Soviet control
Poland protestsà reforms of Communist Party and election of Gomulka (still socialist but a little more independence for the Poles)
Hungary
Nagy called for free elections and a free nation because they didn’t want communism at all
Troops crushed it
Kadar collaborates w/ Soviets, keeps eco reforms
Czech
Little Stalin—Novotnyàresign and be replaced by Dubcek “Communism w/ a human face”- reforms, allowed more freedom of speech and press, people were allowed to travel abroad, secret police backed off. However, people wanted more freedom than what they were given
Prague Spring 1968
Went too far—wanted neutrality from the Soviet Union–Red Army came in and took Dubcek out (but he will be back in 1989 for the Velvet Revolution)
Détente
Anti ballistic missiles treaty 1972
Helsinki Agreements- non-Communist nations recognized Soviet spheres of influence, and Soviets promised to respect human rights
Steps back from détente
Afghanistan was invaded by the Soviets to maintain socialism there, but they could not win
End of the cold war: Gorbachev 1985— new thinking (open to new ideas)
Arms reduction- INF Treaty
Both SU and US wanted to get rid of the costly arms race
Mostly peaceful revolutions in Eastern Europe were not stopped by Gorbachev
1990 reunification of Germany
1991 USSR disintegrated- US actions were unopposed by the Russians
1995 US helped broker an end to war in Bosnia
1999
Domestic policy
Under Brezhnev
Eco problems
Morale problems
New reforms: Yuri Andropov succeeded Brezhnev and supported Gorbachev
Gorbachev
‘86 called for major changes
Perestroika: started a market economy w/ limited free enterprise and private property
Criticism from 2 sides (some wanted full freedom, others feared exploitation of workers) à needed political and social change à
Glasnost
Open discussion of problems
Pravda began printing reports of government corruption (publicized corruption so they could do something about it)
More freedom of arts, western music
Political reform
2 candidates run for a position
Dissidents were freed from jail
New Soviet Parliament: Congress of People’s Deputies w/ elections in 1989
1990 allowed other parties
New state president– Communist Party no longer controlled the government
1990 Lithuanian Supreme council declared independence à call for “proper procedures” of filling out paperwork
Gorbachev worked w/ Boris Yeltsin– head of the Russian Republic
Abortive Communist coup to arrest Gorbachev by traditional Communists- army, KGB, and military. Coup failed à speeded up the changes
Russian, Ukrainian and Belarus republic announce that the SU has ceased to exist
Problems remain
Eco but also Chechens
Eastern Europe
Poland: Solidarity- Lech Walesa
Hungary: gradual free market reforms- “Communism with a capitalist face lift” (more friendly relations with the west)
Czech: Vaclav Havel (poet)
1993 split into Czech and Slovak republics
Romania
Ceausescu (rigid dictator) was overthrown
East Germany (already discussed with reunification of Germany)
Yugoslavia
Collapsed into civil war because of all the ethnicities
Serbs against everyone else
Milosevic practiced ethnic cleansing against Bosnians
US and NATO helped the Bosnians à negotiations à Dayton Accords à Paris peace treaty split Bosnia from Serbia (similar story with Kosovo)
heyyy guess hoo?? its Ral again.
ReplyDeletei just learned a new word... HIPOPOTOMONSTROSESQUIPIDALIOPHOBIA
Definition: when you have a fear of hippos
and this has been a fun fact by yours truly
Wow awesome
ReplyDelete